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2025
Journal of Organizational BehaviorTraining & DevelopmentMotivationWork Design
Promoting Fun or Competition? Testing Interventions on Ludic and Agonistic Work Design
Jan E. Walsken, Fabiola H. Gerpott, Carl Marcus Wallenburg
Abstract
Research highlights the benefits of playâatâwork, yet little is known about training employees to selfâinitiate it. We tested two programs to train employees on designing work with elements of fun (ludic work design [LWD]) or competition (agonistic work design [AWD]). Based on selfâdetermination theory, we propose that enhancing LWD or AWD will positively impact work motivation. Considering literature suggesting that employees engage in mental distancing to protect resources, we further proposeâŚResearch highlights the benefits of playâatâwork, yet little is known about training employees to selfâinitiate it. We tested two programs to train employees on designing work with elements of fun (ludic work design [LWD]) or competition (agonistic work design [AWD]). Based on selfâdetermination theory, we propose that enhancing LWD or AWD will positively impact work motivation. Considering literature suggesting that employees engage in mental distancing to protect resources, we further propose that employees' pretraining mental distancing limits the training's effectiveness. Using an intervention design (N = 228 employees) with two training groups (LWD and AWD) and an active control group, we found that the AWD group reported higher AWD 4 weeks after the training and that the training related to autonomous work motivation 8 weeks later through posttraining AWD. The LWD training did not increase LWD. Instead, LWD decreased after 4 weeks among employees with high pretraining mental distancing. Qualitative followâup analysis on these differential intervention effects indicated that AWD training participants predominantly engaged in workâembedded and independent play, whereas LWD training participants engaged equally in workâembedded and diversionary as well as independent and social play.
How Memes Affect Constituentsâ Social Approval and Intention to Support Firms
Rhonda K. Reger, Chaoqun Deng, Brandy Mmbaga, Nick Mmbaga
Abstract
Theorists have suggested that firms seek to maintain or increase their social approvalâdefined as constituentsâ general affinity for a firmâdue to the belief that such approval significantly influences support for the firm and other important firm ...Theorists have suggested that firms seek to maintain or increase their social approvalâdefined as constituentsâ general affinity for a firmâdue to the belief that such approval significantly influences support for the firm and other important firm outcomes. However, the mechanisms underlying changes in constituentsâ social approval and the translation of such approval into intention to support the firm remain unclear. In addition, most social approval research has focused on traditional media, whereas constituents increasingly get their news about firms from social media. To address these omissions, we use rhetorical theory to theorize that two characteristics of social media contentâemotionality and satireâpersuade constituents to change their social approval evaluations of firms and that changes in social approval affect constituentsâ intention to support firms. We test the framework using memes in three online surveys that allow us to isolate these effects while maintaining ecological validity. Our results indicate that positive negative emotionality in social media content increases and decreases an individualâs approval of a firm, respectively, and satire amplifies these effects. Changes in approval similarly affect intention to support the firm. We also find a spillover effect for positive content but an individuating effect for negative content. We contribute to social approval and social media research by showing the power of social media content to change constituentsâ approval of firms. Our findings advance social approval and social media research in management as new forms of media content emerge and shift how individuals evaluate and subsequently support firms.
From the Evaluatorâs Perspective: A Functional Approach to Social Judgments
Alex Bitektine, Nicole Gillespie, Donald Lange
Abstract
To deepen understanding of social judgments of organizations, we build on work that has adopted the evaluatorâs perspective to develop a comprehensive functional approach to social judgments. We identify a set of adaptive challenges faced by evaluators in their relationship with organizations and theorize how the judgments they make can help resolve those challenges. In doing so, we clarify how social judgments are rooted in comparisons between the organizationâs properties and some socialâŚTo deepen understanding of social judgments of organizations, we build on work that has adopted the evaluatorâs perspective to develop a comprehensive functional approach to social judgments. We identify a set of adaptive challenges faced by evaluators in their relationship with organizations and theorize how the judgments they make can help resolve those challenges. In doing so, we clarify how social judgments are rooted in comparisons between the organizationâs properties and some social referent, and extend understanding of the interrelated nature and complementary role of diverse social judgments. We explain how social judgmentsâsuch as legitimacy, trustworthiness, reputation, status, and authenticityâform a robust system of interrelated judgments that allows evaluators to collect and triangulate multiple judgments of different types, using judgment inputs from three different sources: (1) first-hand inputs, based on the evaluatorâs own observations and information about the organization; (2) borrowed inputs, based on judgments made by others; and (3) taken-for-granted judgment inputs acquired through the evaluatorâs socialization and education. We conclude by suggesting ways to reorient research toward unduly neglected elements of social judgment theory through systematic examination of the functional utility that social judgments provide for evaluators.
A Tale of Two Job Searches: An Integrative Review of How Job Seeker Characteristics Shape Informal Job Search Effectiveness
Caitlin M. Porter, Pol Solanelles, Kristin L. CullenâLester, Ashley Howell Pearson, Juan Du
Abstract
Informal job searchâthe use of personal and professional networks for job searchâis a popular job search method. Yet, answers to the questions of whether informal job search is effective (relative to formal job search) and why have not been clearly articulated, hindering research progress and limiting practical recommendations for job seekers and institutions. We endeavored to address these questions via an integrative, interdisciplinary review of how job search methods (i.e., formal vs.âŚInformal job searchâthe use of personal and professional networks for job searchâis a popular job search method. Yet, answers to the questions of whether informal job search is effective (relative to formal job search) and why have not been clearly articulated, hindering research progress and limiting practical recommendations for job seekers and institutions. We endeavored to address these questions via an integrative, interdisciplinary review of how job search methods (i.e., formal vs. informal) and forms of social capital (i.e., types of contacts and tie strength) relate to job search outcomes (i.e., finding a job vs. finding quality employment), and we summarize evidence for the role of job seeker characteristics as key contingencies on this process. In doing so, we uncover âa tale of two job searches,â wherein informal job search effectiveness is dependent upon job seeker characteristics that impart status within the labor market and/or society. Collectively, our review provides muchâneeded clarity regarding whether an informal job search is better than a formal job search and why, revealing that answers to these questions depend on who is searching for a job. Considering these insights, we outline an agenda for future research focused on enhancing job seekers' access to social networks and integrating job search and social network perspectives to extend knowledge of how different types of job seekers can more effectively utilize their networks for job search.
Agent-Oriented Impression Management: Who Wins When Firms Publicize Their New CEOs?
Hyunjung (Elle) Yoon, Daniel L. Gamache, Michael D. Pfarrer, Jason Kiley
Abstract
In this study, we advance organizational impression management research by focusing on agent-oriented impression managementâwhich reflects attempts to create value for the firm by publicizing individuals or groups who are agents of the firm. Although ...In this study, we advance organizational impression management research by focusing on agent-oriented impression managementâwhich reflects attempts to create value for the firm by publicizing individuals or groups who are agents of the firm. Although prevalent in practice, agent-oriented impression management remains unexplored in scholarly research. Specifically, we introduce the concept of new CEO prominence in firm communication (PFC), defined as the frequency and centrality of new CEO mentions in firm press releases and social media. We argue that new CEO PFC is distinct from traditional impression management tactics because CEOs are agents of the firm that will personally benefit from these impression management strategies. Thus, our research addresses the question: Who captures the value associated with new CEO PFC? We theorize that firms benefit from featuring new CEOs in firm communication through improved external stakeholder evaluations (i.e., analyst ratings). However, these efforts may also create value for the CEOs, as evidenced by increased compensation, more outside directorships, and decreased turnover rates. Our empirical study of efforts to publicize a new CEO following 557 succession events strongly supports our theory.
The Relationship Between Organizational Authenticity Perceptions and Employeesâ Work Performance: Evidence From a Field Experiment
Liat Eldor
Abstract
The concept of organizational authenticityâthe consistency between an organizationâs espoused values and its lived practicesâhas garnered considerable interest in academic discourse. While the authenticity literature has paid much attention to external ...The concept of organizational authenticityâthe consistency between an organizationâs espoused values and its lived practicesâhas garnered considerable interest in academic discourse. While the authenticity literature has paid much attention to external stakeholders (e.g., clients), the notion of organizational authenticity perceptions of an important stakeholderâemployeesâhas been understudied. Despite prior evidence of external stakeholdersâ positive reactions to organizational authenticity perceptions, whether and how it can also affect employees and their work performance remains an open question. I undertook a randomized field experiment in a large, global consulting company to examine how employee perceptions of organizational authenticity affect their work performance. Compared with the control group, those who perceived their organization as authentic demonstrated higher performance. I show evidence that employee trust in the organization mediates the relationship between employee perceptions of organizational authenticity and work performance. Alternative mediatorsâorganizational identification and organizational likabilityâdid not explain this relationship. The studyâs results advance the literature by revealing the important role of organizational authenticity perceptions among an internal stakeholderâemployeesâand the way it affects work performance.
Academy of Management JournalPerformance ManagementOrganizational Culture
Institutional History, Negative Performance Feedback, and R&D Search: A Nexus of the Imprinting and Behavioral Perspectives
Lakshmi Goyal
Abstract
According to the extant literature, organizational history binds strategic choices concerning problemistic search behaviors. To complement this line of inquiry, I draw from organizational imprinting theory to develop arguments regarding how institutional history impacts problemistic search behaviors. Using the regulatory punctuation of pro-market reforms characterizing the Indian economy as the research context, I examine how the timing of firmsâ founding (i.e., in the pre- or post-reformâŚAccording to the extant literature, organizational history binds strategic choices concerning problemistic search behaviors. To complement this line of inquiry, I draw from organizational imprinting theory to develop arguments regarding how institutional history impacts problemistic search behaviors. Using the regulatory punctuation of pro-market reforms characterizing the Indian economy as the research context, I examine how the timing of firmsâ founding (i.e., in the pre- or post-reform period) explains their intensity of research and development (R&D) search following negative attainment discrepancy in the post-reform period. Furthermore, I explore how this relationship varies on the basis of the protectionist policies that characterized the industries in which firms operated during their founding. Overall, I find that firms that originated in the pre-reform period engage in less R&D search in response to negative attainment discrepancy; furthermore, this behavior is stronger among firms that were founded in more protected industries. Post hoc tests, however, reveal that when firms that originated in the pre-reform period face existential threats, they tend to commit greater resources to R&D search. These findings contribute to research at the intersection of history, institutions, and problemistic search theory, and provide novel insights into the problemistic search behaviors of emerging-economy firms.
Plain Sailing or Choppy Water? Maintaining Interpersonal Trusting Relationships in Times of Uncertainty
Sian Kelly, Lisa van der Werff, Yseult Freeney
Abstract
Interpersonal trusting relationships frequently experience relational threats that require both parties to engage actively in trust maintenance efforts. Yet, trust research has tended to focus on trust formation, or trust repair in the case of a violation,...Interpersonal trusting relationships frequently experience relational threats that require both parties to engage actively in trust maintenance efforts. Yet, trust research has tended to focus on trust formation, or trust repair in the case of a violation, and offers us little insight regarding how these more ambiguous threats to trusting relationships are experienced and overcome relationally. To provide novel insight on this topic, this exploratory study gathers dyadic interview data from 26 managerâemployee trusting relationships regarding their experience of relational threats and their proactive efforts to overcome these negative relational experiences. Findings show that the experience of a relational threat triggers a three-stage trust maintenance process that includes an assessment phase, an active maintenance phase, and an outcome phase. Threats are assessed at the individual level via cognitive and affective sensemaking, while trust maintenance efforts (creating a shared mental model, cognitive and structural reassurance, and dyadic problem solving) require dyadic counterparts to act with mutual agency to overcome the relational threat and avoid a loss of trust. Trust maintenance processes support dyads to either maintain or strengthen their existing trusting relationships. Our findings advance our theoretical understanding of interpersonal trust maintenance by demonstrating that this process unfolds across three phases and can lead to different outcomes for dyadsâ trusting relationships. We offer practical guidelines to safeguard existing trusting relationships, as well as a new agenda for trust scholars to extend our theorizing.
Are Family Owners Willing to Risk âRocking the Boatâ? A Blended Socioemotional Wealth-Implicit Theory Framework
Luis R. GĂłmez-MejĂa, Francesco Chirico, Michael C. Withers, Geoffrey P. Martin, Robert M. Wiseman
Abstract
We leverage research on socioemotional wealth (SEW) and implicit theories to develop a novel blended SEW-implicit theory framework that explains why some family firms are more risk seeking or more risk averse. According to implicit theory, individuals ...We leverage research on socioemotional wealth (SEW) and implicit theories to develop a novel blended SEW-implicit theory framework that explains why some family firms are more risk seeking or more risk averse. According to implicit theory, individuals perceive reality through their interpretative cognitive filters. Those with an entity theory orientation see reality as relatively fixed or uncontrollable, while those with an incremental-implicit theory orientation tend to perceive reality as malleable and change as leading to positive outcomes. We theorize that family firms with high SEW intensity tend to adopt an entity orientation, whereas those with low SEW intensity tend to adopt an incremental orientation. Accordingly, we propose that the likelihood that family owners hold either orientation is shaped by organizational features associated with SEW intensity, namely (a) the salience of family versus business identity, (b) family founder imprinting, (c) generational stage, and (d) favorable path dependence. In turn, family owners with an entity orientation are less likely to take risks compared to family owners with an incremental orientation. Furthermore, we theorize that a firmâs performance hazard can shift family ownersâ implicit orientation from entity-based to incremental and vice versa, thereby impacting their risk-taking behavior.
The Time to Succeed: CEO Appointment Phase Entrainment and Post-Succession Firm Operational Performance
Diego Villalpando, Robert J. Campbell, Liliana PĂŠrez-Nordtvedt
Abstract
Given the inevitability of CEO successions and the importance of CEOs to firm performance, a stream of research explores the effects of new CEO appointments on post-succession firm performance. Yet, scholarly findings regarding the performance outcomes ...Given the inevitability of CEO successions and the importance of CEOs to firm performance, a stream of research explores the effects of new CEO appointments on post-succession firm performance. Yet, scholarly findings regarding the performance outcomes provoked by CEO succession are decidedly mixed. We argue that a temporal explanation, particularly one focusing on the dates at which new CEOs are appointed to their positions (i.e., when they begin their tenures), may offer critical insight into this relationship. As such, to advance the CEO succession literature, we define CEO appointment phase entrainment as timing the start day of a newly appointed CEO to coincide with the beginning of well-known zeitgebers, and we offer argumentsâleveraging organizational entrainment theoryâsuggesting that entraining CEO appointments to the start of the calendar or fiscal year zeitgebers results in heightened operational performance. Further, we argue that entraining such appointments to these zeitgebers will be more effective when the new CEO is an outsider, young, or an occupational minority. Across numerous analyses, we find empirical evidence consistent with our theory. We therefore make important theoretical contributions to the CEO succession and organization entrainment literatures.
Journal of ManagementLeadershipDiversity & Inclusion
An Identity Threat Appraisal Framework Explaining Distinct Reactions to Active- and Passive-Aggressive Abusive Supervision
Yongyi Liang, Tingting Chen, Eric Adom Asante, Ming Yan, Jiayin Deng, Wing Lam
Abstract
Previous research has predominantly focused on the overt acts of supervisory abuse or has taken a general approach that fails to differentiate between its distinctive forms. Integrating the literature on hot versus cold identity threats and identity ...Previous research has predominantly focused on the overt acts of supervisory abuse or has taken a general approach that fails to differentiate between its distinctive forms. Integrating the literature on hot versus cold identity threats and identity threat appraisal, we examine how different forms of abusive supervision influence employee outcomes. We argue that active-aggressive abusive supervision, characterized by supervisorsâ overt acts of abuse, embodies a hot identity threat that stimulates employeesâ identity-protection responses, such as supervisor-directed aggression, a form of derogation. By contrast, passive-aggressive abusive supervision, involving covert acts of abuse, represents a cold identity threat that triggers employeesâ identity-restructuring responses, manifesting as feedback seeking directed at coworkers and work withdrawal. These two pathways operate through distinct mechanismsâdecreased group self-esteem and increased self-uncertainty, respectivelyâand are influenced by different moderators. The results from two experiments and one field study largely supported the hypothesized relationships. By differentiating between two forms of abusive supervision and examining their distinct effects, this study enhances our understanding of the nuanced nature of abusive supervision, its impacts, underlying mechanisms, and contingencies.
Alignment in Mature Ecosystems: An Iterative Process Of Interorganizational Influence
Lauri Paavola, Annabelle Gawer, Mikko Hänninen
Abstract
Extant empirical research on ecosystem alignment has offered little insight into how mature ecosystems align their members with a new value proposition. Our longitudinal empirical study of a seven-year hub-driven alignment initiative within the SOK led ...Extant empirical research on ecosystem alignment has offered little insight into how mature ecosystems align their members with a new value proposition. Our longitudinal empirical study of a seven-year hub-driven alignment initiative within the SOK led retail ecosystem in Finland explores how a mature ecosystem hub attempted to enroll its members in a value-proposition updating, ecosystem-wide initiative and the membersâ reaction. We find that the mature ecosystem alignment process unfolds through four distinct sets of practices: (1) Courtship, (2) Mutual Adaptation, (3) Peer Emulation, and (4) Coercion. We describe these practices and associated mechanisms and develop a process model indicating how they unfold and interrelate. Our study provides a nuanced, empirically grounded account of mature ecosystem alignment as an iterative process of multilateral interorganizational influence that leads to, on the one hand, a convergence of actions among an expanding set of ecosystem members and, on the other hand, a divergence of views between the newly aligned members and a subset of members who become increasingly entrenched in their perception of irreconcilable differences and ultimately leave the ecosystem. Our discussion suggests that the tension between the hubâs temptation to control and the ecosystem membersâ concern about preserving their autonomy propels the alignment process to its conclusion. We conclude with methodological contributions, managerial implications and avenues for future research.
Academy of Management ReviewTheory & Philosophy of Science
Theorizing Routine Enactment from a Pragmatist Perspective: Agency, Experience, and Situational Novelty
Dionysios D. Dionysiou, Haridimos Tsoukas, Kathleen M. Sutcliffe
Abstract
Research on routine dynamics has shown that, due to the improvisational nature of agency and the ever-present situational novelty, every routine enactment is, to some extent, novel. However, extant theorizing, by focusing predominantly on observable patterns of action, underplays the role of routine participantsâ lived experience in shaping routine enactment. Seeking to address this limitation, we draw upon pragmatist thinking to develop an integrative process model of routine enactment,âŚResearch on routine dynamics has shown that, due to the improvisational nature of agency and the ever-present situational novelty, every routine enactment is, to some extent, novel. However, extant theorizing, by focusing predominantly on observable patterns of action, underplays the role of routine participantsâ lived experience in shaping routine enactment. Seeking to address this limitation, we draw upon pragmatist thinking to develop an integrative process model of routine enactment, focusing in particular on the agencyâsituational novelty interplay. Specifically, we identify the process of inquiry as the general mechanism through which routine participants respond to situational novelty, and distinguish three types of routine enactment: habitual enactment, spontaneous variation, and reconstruction. Our model contributes to routine dynamics research by (a) integrating extant research at a higher level of generality, while being sensitive to the local circumstances of routine enactment; (b) accounting for the interplay between deliberate and pre-reflective, embodied responses to novelty; (c) strengthening the richness and practical relevance of routine enactment explanations by attending closely to what matters most to routine participants when they tackle situational novelty; and (d) opening multiple promising avenues for future study by establishing links with diverse areas of research relating to routine enactment.
You, Me, and the AI: The Role of ThirdâParty Human Teammates for Trust Formation Toward AI Teammates
TĂźrkĂź Erengin, Roman Briker, Simon B. de Jong
Abstract
As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes increasingly integrated in teams, understanding the factors that drive trust formation between human and AI teammates becomes crucial. Yet, the emergent literature has overlooked the impact of third parties on humanâAI teaming. Drawing from social cognitive theory and humanâAI teams research, we suggest that how much a human teammate perceives an AI teammate as trustworthy, and engages in trust behaviors toward the AI, determines a focal employee's trustâŚAs artificial intelligence (AI) becomes increasingly integrated in teams, understanding the factors that drive trust formation between human and AI teammates becomes crucial. Yet, the emergent literature has overlooked the impact of third parties on humanâAI teaming. Drawing from social cognitive theory and humanâAI teams research, we suggest that how much a human teammate perceives an AI teammate as trustworthy, and engages in trust behaviors toward the AI, determines a focal employee's trust perceptions and behavior toward this AI teammate. Additionally, we propose these effects hinge on an employee's perceptions of trustworthiness and trust in the human teammate. We test these predictions across two studies: (1) an online experiment comprising individuals with work experience that examines perceptions of disembodied AI trustworthiness, and (2) an incentivized observational study that investigates trust behaviors toward an embodied AI. Both studies reveal that a human teammate's perceived trustworthiness of, and trust in, the AI teammate strongly predict the employee's trustworthiness perceptions and behavioral trust in the AI teammate. Furthermore, this relationship vanishes when employees perceive their human teammates as less trustworthy. These results advance our understanding of thirdâparty effects in humanâAI trust formation, providing organizations with insights for managing social influences in humanâAI teams.
Journal of Organizational BehaviorTeams & GroupsWork Design
Navigating AI Convergence in HumanâArtificial Intelligence Teams: A Signaling Theory Approach
Andria Smith, Hunter Phoenix van Wagoner, Ksenia Keplinger, Can Celebi
Abstract
Teams that combine human intelligence with artificial intelligence (AI) have become indispensable for solving complex tasks in various decisionâmaking contexts in modern organizations. However, the factors that contribute to AI convergence, where human team members align their decisions with those of their AI counterparts, still remain unclear. This study integrates signaling theory with selfâdetermination theory to investigate how specific signalsâsuch as signal fit, optional AI advice, andâŚTeams that combine human intelligence with artificial intelligence (AI) have become indispensable for solving complex tasks in various decisionâmaking contexts in modern organizations. However, the factors that contribute to AI convergence, where human team members align their decisions with those of their AI counterparts, still remain unclear. This study integrates signaling theory with selfâdetermination theory to investigate how specific signalsâsuch as signal fit, optional AI advice, and signal set congruenceâaffect employees' AI convergence in humanâAI teams. Based on four experimental studies conducted in facial recognition and hiring contexts with approximately 1100 participants, the findings highlight the significant positive impact of congruent signals from both human and AI team members on AI convergence. Moreover, providing an option for employees to solicit AI advice also enhances AI convergence; when AI signals are chosen by employees rather than forced upon them, participants are more likely to accept AI advice. This research advances knowledge on humanâAI teaming by (1) expanding signaling theory into the humanâAI team context; (2) developing a deeper understanding of AI convergence and its drivers in humanâAI teams; (3) providing actionable insights for designing teams and tasks to optimize decisionâmaking in highâstakes, uncertain environments; and (4) introducing facial recognition as an innovative context for humanâAI teaming.
Surveying the Upper Echelons: An Update to Cycyota and Harrison (2006) on Top Manager Response Rates and Recommendations for the Future
Cameron J. Borgholthaus, Alaric Bourgoin, Peter D. Harms, Joshua V. White, Tyler N. A. Fezzey
Abstract
Nearly 2 decades ago, Cycyota and Harrison (2006) documented a concerning trend of declining executive survey response rates and projected a continued decrease in the future. Their seminal work has significantly influenced the methodologies of upper ...Nearly 2 decades ago, Cycyota and Harrison (2006) documented a concerning trend of declining executive survey response rates and projected a continued decrease in the future. Their seminal work has significantly influenced the methodologies of upper echelons survey research. Our study examines the manner in which Cycyota and Harrisonâs paper has impacted the existing upper echelons literature and replicates their study by analyzing peer-reviewed studies published post-2006. We reveal that executive response rates have largely stabilized since Cycyota and Harrisonâs initial findings. Furthermore, we expand upon their research by identifying specific geographical contexts and contact methodologies associated with higher (and lower) response rates. Finally, we lend insight into the evolving landscape of executive survey research and offer practical implications for future methodological endeavors in the upper echelons.
The High Cost of Cheap Talk: How Disingenuous Ethical Language Can Reflect Agency Costs
Stephen J. Smulowitz, Michael D. Pfarrer, Didier Cossin, Hongze (Abraham) Lu
Abstract
Does the use of a certain type of ethical language indicate that managers are failing to behave in a socially responsible manner? Managers are increasingly using language related to ethics, values, and corporate purpose in their communications with ...Does the use of a certain type of ethical language indicate that managers are failing to behave in a socially responsible manner? Managers are increasingly using language related to ethics, values, and corporate purpose in their communications with stakeholders. However, while economic models argue that âtalk is cheap,â we predict that some ethical language (i.e., cheap talk) can reflect agency costs. That is, cheap talk reflects managers being disingenuous with stakeholders about their ethical intentions in order to reduce pressure on corporate social performance (CSP). We test this prediction by inductively creating a dictionary of cheap talk words and demonstrating that the use of cheap talk in annual reports (10-Ks) is associated with decreasing CSP. We also examine how monitoring by stakeholders concerned about CSP (specifically, security analysts and women board membership) can reduce this effect, and how certain types of executive compensation (specifically, exercisable and non-exercisable options) can either alleviate or worsen this effect. We contribute to the cheap talk literature (a subset of the impression management literature) by showing the high cost of disingenuous ethical language (i.e., cheap talk). We also add to the literature distinguishing between âvaluesâ and âlegalâ ethical talk by showing in post hoc analyses that words reflecting values are more likely to be cheap talk.
Journal of ManagementSelection & AssessmentDiversity & Inclusion
Autistic Applicantsâ Job Interview Experiences and Accommodation Preferences: An Intersectional Analysis
Maira E. Ezerins, Lauren S. Simon, Christopher C. Rosen
Abstract
Although more organizations are seeking autistic applicants, autistic people remain in an unemployment crisis. This may be due in part to job interviews, which often implicitly evaluate relational and social skillsâan area with which many autistic people ...Although more organizations are seeking autistic applicants, autistic people remain in an unemployment crisis. This may be due in part to job interviews, which often implicitly evaluate relational and social skillsâan area with which many autistic people struggle. To determine how to better support autistic applicants, we conduct a mixed methods study to identify, from their own perspective, the accommodations that would have the greatest impact on autistic individualsâ interview anxiety and performance. Additionally, we examine differences in interview anxiety and preferred adjustments to the interview process between both autistic and allistic participants and intersectionally across gender. Findings revealed additive effects of neurotype and gender on interview anxiety, with autistic participants reporting higher anxiety than allistic participants, and women reporting higher anxiety than men. Interestingly, despite a small number of notable differences, there were far more similarities between groups regarding preferred interview adjustments. These findings suggest that many adjustments to the interview process may be helpful across neurotypes, although they are perhaps particularly beneficial for alleviating the comparatively higher anxiety levels experienced by autistic applicants. Overall, there is a need to consider how and whether current interview best practices (e.g., standardization and structure) can be adapted to facilitate the inclusion of diverse neurotypes across a range of individual differences. As a starting point, we offer practical guidelines for managers wishing to improve the interview process for autistic and allistic applicants alike and set a foundation for future research.
Being Moral When It Is Counternormative: The Relationship Between the Creative Identity and Moral Objection
Lynne C. Vincent, Maryam Kouchaki
Abstract
Relying on the work on creative prototype and role theory, we demonstrate that having a creative identity can lead to moral objection depending on the implication of the act for oneâs identity as a creative individual. In a pilot study using a survey of ...Relying on the work on creative prototype and role theory, we demonstrate that having a creative identity can lead to moral objection depending on the implication of the act for oneâs identity as a creative individual. In a pilot study using a survey of working adults, we find that employeesâ creative identities and their intention to object in moral situations are positively and significantly correlated. Utilizing measurement-of-mediation (Study 1) and experimental mediation (Studies 2â4) approaches, we test and find support for the mediating role of norm-breaking motives predicting moral objection. In Studies 2â4, we find that creative identities lead to moral objection when moral objection is counter-normative and not when it is an expected, normative behavior. Across five studies ( N = 1,327), utilizing both experimental and correlational methods, this paper shows that creative identities can prompt moral objection when such objection is counter-normative, aligning with the creative prototype and reinforcing a creative identity through norm-breaking motives. We extend prior theories on the consequences of creativity, the creative prototype, creative identities, and their link with moral acts.
Eyes on the Ball: Activist Campaigns and Managementâs Response at the Operational Level
Razvan Lungeanu, Margarethe Wiersema
Abstract
More than 45% of the S&P 500 have been the target of activist investors. As a major shareholder in the firms they target, activist investorsâ campaigns raise concerns over the firmâs poor performance and pose a threat to managementâs control over the ...More than 45% of the S&P 500 have been the target of activist investors. As a major shareholder in the firms they target, activist investorsâ campaigns raise concerns over the firmâs poor performance and pose a threat to managementâs control over the firm. Prior research has found that activist campaigns have significant consequences, as management curtails long-term investments, divests businesses, and foregoes acquisitions. Strategic decisions at the corporate level, however, do not provide insight as to whether activist investors motivate management to improve the operational competitiveness of the firm. Our study seeks to address whether activist campaigns succeed in motivating management to improve the firmâs operational competitiveness. This represents an important issue since the firmâs operational practices are essential to its competitiveness and performance. Our study proposes and finds that firms targeted by activist investors seek new ways by which to improve the firmâs operational efficiency and effectiveness. In addition, the management of target firms shift their emphasis to tactics that can improve the firmâs operations in the short-term. We use a measure of operational competitiveness that provides detail and granularity at a tactical level, enabling us to compare and contrast how firms respond to activist investors at the operational level of the firm. Thus, our study provides important insights not previously found that activist campaigns motivate management to improve the firmâs operational competitiveness.
Disadvantaged Communities, Sudden Threats, and the Founding of Social Movement Organizations: The Case of Anti-Mafia Organizations
Heewon Chae, Giovanni Battista Dagnino, Pino G. Audia
Abstract
We examine the contribution of disadvantaged communities to protest and the creation of social movement organizations (SMOs). While some view disadvantaged groupsâ dissatisfaction with the status quo as critical, others expect them to be reluctant to ...We examine the contribution of disadvantaged communities to protest and the creation of social movement organizations (SMOs). While some view disadvantaged groupsâ dissatisfaction with the status quo as critical, others expect them to be reluctant to initiate collective action because they tolerate grievances that tend to be stable over time. We suggest that sudden threats that stir up the urgency to fight against the status quo serve as a catalyst for the influence of disadvantaged communities on protest and SMO creation. Quantitative analyses of the emergence of SMOs that fought against the Mafia in Palermo, Italy, reveal two main findings. First, murders of individuals who challenged the Mafia increase anti-Mafia protest events especially in disadvantaged communities. Second, SMO creation is less likely to occur in disadvantaged communities. But protest events strengthen SMO creation, and this relationship is stronger in disadvantaged communities. An experiment in the context of racism in policing provides additional evidence of these links while also pointing to anger as an important mechanism. Overall, this study helps identify situations in which disadvantaged communitiesâ latent grievances, ignited by sudden threats, work in tandem with protests to create a distinct route to SMO foundings.
Manipulation in Organizational Research: On Executing and Interpreting Designs from Treatments to Primes
Kira F. Schabram, Christopher G. Myers, Ashley E. Hardin
Abstract
While other applied sciences systematically distinguish between manipulation designs, organizational research does not. Herein, we disentangle distinct applications that differ in how the manipulation is deployed, analyzed, and interpreted in support of ...While other applied sciences systematically distinguish between manipulation designs, organizational research does not. Herein, we disentangle distinct applications that differ in how the manipulation is deployed, analyzed, and interpreted in support of hypotheses. First, we define two archetypes: treatments, experimental designs that expose participants to different levels/types of a manipulation of theoretical interest, and primes, manipulations that are not of theoretical interest but generate variance in a state that is. We position these and creative derivations (e.g., interventions and invariant prompts) as specialized tools in our methodological kit. Second, we review 450 manipulations published in leading organizational journals to identify each type's prevalence and application in our field. From this we derive our guiding thesis that while treatments offer unique advantages (foremost establishing causality), they are not always possible, nor the best fit for a research question; in these cases, a non-causal but accurate test of theory, such as a prime design, may prove superior to a causal but inaccurate test. We conclude by outlining best practices for selection, execution, and evaluation by researchers, reviewers, and readers.
Coping With Competing Role Expectations: How Do Independent Directors Make Sense of Their Role?
Jin-ichiro Yamada, Toru Yoshikawa
Abstract
How do individual independent directors make sense of their director role? We examine this question in the context of competing expectations among key corporate governance actors during the onboarding process of independent directors. This study explores ...How do individual independent directors make sense of their director role? We examine this question in the context of competing expectations among key corporate governance actors during the onboarding process of independent directors. This study explores how independent directors navigate these expectations, which stem from both external change agents, such as government agencies and the media, and internal actors, especially management. Given the inherent ambiguity of their roles, which involve multiple board tasks and lack explicit definition, independent directors often face role conflicts. Our findings reveal that independent directors resolve these conflicts by adopting one of three role orientations: external adaptive, organizational alignment, or provisional balancing. Through this process, they construct their director role by coping with the expectations of key governance actors. This study contributes to the micro-foundations of corporate governance research by shedding light on the individual-level dynamics that shape how independent directors interpret and enact their roles.
Pioneer Learning From Failure: How Competitor Entry and Consumer Reports Improve Learning From Failure Repositories
David Maslach, Horacio Rousseau, Bruce Lamont
Abstract
While learning is key for pioneersâfirms introducing new products without existing competitorsâa lack of competitors limits learning opportunities. To compensate, pioneers in safety-critical industries frequently resort to failure repositoriesâdatabases ...While learning is key for pioneersâfirms introducing new products without existing competitorsâa lack of competitors limits learning opportunities. To compensate, pioneers in safety-critical industries frequently resort to failure repositoriesâdatabases that track failure reports in an industry. However, the sheer volume, inconsistency, and unstructured nature of such failure reports make them difficult to use without clear referents that provide a benchmark and context for interpretation. We investigate how the entry of a competitor enhances pioneersâ learning effectiveness by offering such a stable basis for comparison and analysis. Specifically, we observe changes in failure reports that support our theory that pioneers adjust their learning processes in response to the altered availability and nature of failure information in a repository after competitor entry. Consumer failure reports, which provide unfiltered and unique information, are crucial for understanding and addressing problems that may result in failure. Our analysis of the medical device industry shows that pioneers learn more effectively after a competitor enters the market. Pioneers learn more effectively from consumer reports, especially when not interspersed with less valuable sources, such as expert and internal firm reports. Notably, pioneer learning after competitor entry leads to lower reported alleged future injuries and product malfunctions. These findings contribute to repository-based learning by showing how competition can improve effectiveness and suggesting that distinct consumer feedback is particularly valuable for pioneering firms. Besides adding to the literature on organizational learning, this study also highlights the role of competition in fostering innovation and improving safety.
Political Directors and the Recruitment of Foreign Workers
Steve Sauerwald, Peter Norlander
Abstract
Companies strive to gain a competitive advantage by recruiting highly qualified employees. One way to achieve this goal is by recruiting foreign workers, frequently through the H-1B visa program. However, immigration has become a contentious political ...Companies strive to gain a competitive advantage by recruiting highly qualified employees. One way to achieve this goal is by recruiting foreign workers, frequently through the H-1B visa program. However, immigration has become a contentious political issue in the United States, making it more difficult to recruit foreign workers. We examine how politicians on the board influence recruitment strategies aimed at attracting foreign workers. Studying the aftermath of the 2016 U.S. presidential election and President Donald Trumpâs âBuy American, Hire Americanâ policy, we estimate the impact of political directors on recruiting strategies. By analyzing the near-universe of job advertisements in the United States, we develop novel firm-level measures of employment barriers for foreign workers. We find that the presence of political directors increased the employment barriers for foreign workers after Trumpâs inauguration. We also argue that the information processing capabilities of the board moderate this effect: diverse boards and boards with Human Resources committees decrease the employment barriers for foreign workers, whereas shareholder meetings during periods of heightened political risk increase these employment barriers.
Journal of ManagementMotivationOrganizational Culture
Mirror Versus Substitute: How Institutional Context Affects Individual Motivation for Corporate Social Responsibility
Anna Jasinenko, Steven A. Brieger, Patrick Haack
Abstract
The institutional perspective on corporate social responsibility (CSR) has discussed two diametrically opposed hypotheses about how institutional context influences CSR. Whereas the mirror hypothesis suggests that CSR is stronger in institutional contexts ...The institutional perspective on corporate social responsibility (CSR) has discussed two diametrically opposed hypotheses about how institutional context influences CSR. Whereas the mirror hypothesis suggests that CSR is stronger in institutional contexts with stringent CSR-related regulations, the substitute hypothesis posits that CSR is stronger in weakly regulated contexts. Drawing on the micro-CSR literature, we propose that examining individual CSR motivation can help to better understand the effect of institutional context on CSR because it makes focusing on substantively motivated CSR possible, and it can shed light on the hitherto neglected psychological moderators in this relationship. We conducted three studies, obtaining results indicating that institutional trust is an important moderator of the institutional effect on individual CSR motivation. Overall, we found the highest individual CSR motivation when regulatory stringency and institutional trust were high, supporting the mirror hypothesis. However, in contexts of low institutional trust, this positive effect of a strong institutional context was reduced or even reversed. Our study contributes to the literature on the institutional perspective on CSR, micro-CSR, and institutional theory, and it has important practical implications for CSR management.
Breaking Through? The Divergent Consequences of CEO Political Ideology on Firm Inventiveness
Andreea N. Kiss, Qianqian Yu, François Neville, Andrew Ward
Abstract
We draw on upper-echelons literature recognizing the important role of CEOs in firm strategy, including innovation, and research on CEO political ideology and executive discretion to explore the relationship between CEO political ideology and firm ...We draw on upper-echelons literature recognizing the important role of CEOs in firm strategy, including innovation, and research on CEO political ideology and executive discretion to explore the relationship between CEO political ideology and firm breakthrough inventions. We suggest that CEO liberalism is a double-edged sword and is positively associated with firm breakthrough inventions but also less-useful inventions. We suggest that these relationships are shaped by three different sources of executive discretion: CEO-TMT pay gap, institutional investors, and existing product-market competition. We find support for our hypotheses on a sample of 581 public firms using firmsâ patenting and citation activities to capture inventions. We infuse a values, contingency-based perspective to work on CEO characteristics and firm breakthrough inventions, provide a more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of managerial discretion in setting or deviating firms on/from certain technological trajectories, and extend work on political ideology by showing the relevance of political ideology for explaining not just variations in firm internal resource allocation decisions, corporate activism, and entrepreneurship but also in the level and nature of inventions it produces.
Academy of Management ReviewTraining & Development
Algorithm Envelopment in Platform Markets
Liang Chen, Zhou Zhou, Lester T. Chan
Abstract
The theory of platform envelopment rests on network effects as the key mechanism for value creation, which nonetheless receives mixed support for its efficacy in determining competitive outcomes. We argue that the value of network effects depends on matching quality, which is a function of platform-specific algorithm technology and market-level data-driven learning. In formalizing these conceptualizations, we analyze a model that demonstrates how an entrant with a superior algorithm technologyâŚThe theory of platform envelopment rests on network effects as the key mechanism for value creation, which nonetheless receives mixed support for its efficacy in determining competitive outcomes. We argue that the value of network effects depends on matching quality, which is a function of platform-specific algorithm technology and market-level data-driven learning. In formalizing these conceptualizations, we analyze a model that demonstrates how an entrant with a superior algorithm technology may outcompete an incumbent possessing a user base advantage, a strategy we call âalgorithm envelopment.â By considering specific characteristics of data-driven learning, our analysis leads to propositions regarding the entry barriers for the enveloper, illuminating how learning may overshadow or interact with network effects in impacting the enveloperâs market selection decisions. We also show that market selection may be contingent on whether algorithm envelopment is instituted through competition or mergers, suggesting an interdependence between âwhere to enterâ and âhow to enter.â Finally, we explore the welfare effects of algorithm envelopment. We extend the recent debate on âdata network effectsâ and show how teasing apart network effects, data-driven learning, and algorithm technology in envelopment attacks can generate novel implications for incumbency advantages, yield insights into platform diversification, and inform antitrust policymaking.
Intermediated Legitimation: How Founders Build New Venture Legitimacy among Make-or-Break Audiences
Isabel Neuberger, Fabio Mattioli, Harriette Richards, Greg Nyilasy, Paul Tracey
Abstract
Many new ventures enter relationships with intermediaries, thereby ceding control to an organization that becomes a make-or-break audience for them. These settings foster intense experiences, suggesting that participating founders are likely to face a distinct set of challenges as they seek to build their ventureâs legitimacy. Yet we lack a systematic analysis of new venture legitimation processes in the context of this critical audience type. To build new understanding of these importantâŚMany new ventures enter relationships with intermediaries, thereby ceding control to an organization that becomes a make-or-break audience for them. These settings foster intense experiences, suggesting that participating founders are likely to face a distinct set of challenges as they seek to build their ventureâs legitimacy. Yet we lack a systematic analysis of new venture legitimation processes in the context of this critical audience type. To build new understanding of these important dynamics, we conducted an ethnographic study of three ventures in an Australian accelerator. Our study reveals three distinct legitimation pathways that ventures may follow when seeking legitimacy from a make-or-break audienceâthe obedient, pragmatic, and rebellious paths. We find that these pathways are jointly shaped by the expectations of the audience, the emotional experiences of founders, and foundersâ reactions to these emotions in the context of perceived venture performance. We contribute to organizational scholarship by identifying a novel set of new venture legitimation pathways that incorporate emotion, conceptualizing âventure workâ as a distinct type of social-symbolic work designed to legitimate startups and shedding new light on the role of new venture support organizations in entrepreneurial ecosystems.
Journal of ManagementTraining & DevelopmentOrganizational Culture
Industry Offshoring and Firm Internationalization: Complementarities in External Learning
Netanel Drori, Daniel S. Andrews, Stav Fainshmidt, Ajai Gaur
Abstract
We draw upon organizational learning theory to argue that industry offshoring intensity provides knowledge reservoirs for firms to learn about foreign markets. However, learning about foreign markets from other firmsâ cross-border input activities is ...We draw upon organizational learning theory to argue that industry offshoring intensity provides knowledge reservoirs for firms to learn about foreign markets. However, learning about foreign markets from other firmsâ cross-border input activities is challenging, and a knowledge reservoir embedded in an industry may not be immediately utilizable by all firms. We posit that realizing such external learning opportunities hinges on complementarities facilitated by internationalization-specific experience and general absorptive capacities. Industry offshoring intensity has no effect on the internationalization likelihood of firms lacking foreign market experience. Their absence of internationalization-specific knowledge erects barriers to realizing external learning opportunities unless they possess a general absorptive capacity that supports assimilating insights from new domains, enabling complementarities with the knowledge reservoir. By comparison, firms with foreign market experience can more readily leverage the knowledge reservoirs, increasing the extent of their internationalization. Complementarities between experiential and external knowledge enable this effect. Data from 5,745 United States firms in 56 industries (1997 to 2019) support these arguments. This study offers industry offshoring as a novel internationalization determinant underpinned by a knowledge reservoir stemming from peersâ activities. It also highlights the complementarities between experiential and non-experiential learning forms and absorptive capacityâs role in demarcating potential and realized opportunities.
Academy of Management ReviewTraining & Development
Moral Character Development: The âMoral Momentsâ Model
Isaac H. Smith, Kristen Bell DeTienne, Marc-Charles Ingerson, David J. Cherrington
Abstract
Despite a burgeoning literature on morality and ethics in the workplace, a useful model of how workplace experiences help adults develop moral character over time has remained elusive. Adopting a social-cognitive perspective, we propose that the workplace is full of moral moments, and we present a three-layer theoretical model that describes how peopleâs responses to workplace events can make their moral character improve (i.e., development), stay the same (i.e., maintenance), or get worseâŚDespite a burgeoning literature on morality and ethics in the workplace, a useful model of how workplace experiences help adults develop moral character over time has remained elusive. Adopting a social-cognitive perspective, we propose that the workplace is full of moral moments, and we present a three-layer theoretical model that describes how peopleâs responses to workplace events can make their moral character improve (i.e., development), stay the same (i.e., maintenance), or get worse (i.e., degeneration). Layer 1 of our model presents the basic building blocks of a dynamic moral character change cycle composed of moral standards, behavioral intentions, behaviors, and behavioral evaluations. Layer 2 introduces and describes moral moments, the agentic processes they entail (forethought, self-regulation, and self-reflection), and the motivating mechanisms involved (ethical dissonance and ethical resonance). Layer 3 situates our model in the context of organizational life, and outlines important individual and organizational moderating factors that influence when moral moments and elements of the change cycle will be more, or less, likely to lead to moral character development. Finally, we discuss the theoretical implications of our model and how it can be leveraged to design organizational interventions that better facilitate the process of moral character development at work.
The Internet Never Forgets: A Four-Step Scraping Tutorial, Codebase, and Database for Longitudinal Organizational Website Data
Richard F.J. Haans, Marc J. Mertens
Abstract
Websites represent a crucial avenue for organizations to reach customers, attract talent, and disseminate information to stakeholders. Despite their importance, strikingly little work in the domain of organization and management research has tapped into ...Websites represent a crucial avenue for organizations to reach customers, attract talent, and disseminate information to stakeholders. Despite their importance, strikingly little work in the domain of organization and management research has tapped into this source of longitudinal big data. In this paper, we highlight the unique nature and profound potential of longitudinal website data and present novel open-source code- and databases that make these data accessible. Specifically, our codebase offers a general-purpose setup, building on four central steps to scrape historical websites using the Wayback Machine. Our open-access CompuCrawl database was built using this four-step approach. It contains websites of North American firms in the Compustat database between 1996 and 2020âcovering 11,277 firms with 86,303 firm/year observations and 1,617,675 webpages. We describe the coverage of our database and illustrate its use by applying word-embedding models to reveal the evolving meaning of the concept of âsustainabilityâ over time. Finally, we outline several avenues for future research enabled by our step-by-step longitudinal web scraping approach and our CompuCrawl database.
Academy of Management ReviewTraining & DevelopmentLeadershipDiversity & Inclusion
Beyond Backlash: Advancing Dominant-Group Employeesâ Learning, Allyship, and Growth Through Social Identity Threat
Camellia Bryan, Brent J. Lyons
Abstract
Current scholarship about dominant-group employeesâ experiences of social identity threat highlights how threat can lead to backlash, undermining these employeesâ support for marginalized-group employees at work. We alternatively suggest that social identity threat can also inspire dominant-group employees to learn how to better support marginalized-group employees. Leveraging intergroup threat theory and applying transformational learning theory, our theoretical model describes how, and theâŚCurrent scholarship about dominant-group employeesâ experiences of social identity threat highlights how threat can lead to backlash, undermining these employeesâ support for marginalized-group employees at work. We alternatively suggest that social identity threat can also inspire dominant-group employees to learn how to better support marginalized-group employees. Leveraging intergroup threat theory and applying transformational learning theory, our theoretical model describes how, and the conditions under which, social identity threat can trigger a process of learning whereby dominant-group employees update their interpretations of dominant and marginalized social identity groups, and relations between the groups. We also note implications of learning for employeesâ allyship behaviors and growth. Recognizing that learning occurs via interactions with colleagues, we introduce dialogue across perspectives as a way for dominant-group employees to obtain feedback and update their interpretations. Moreover, we elucidate individual and organizational factors that facilitate both openness to learning in response to social identity threat, and the likelihood of dialogue across perspectives occurring in organizations. Ultimately, while prior theory has described the perils of social identity threat, our theory speaks to the silver lining of threat for dominant-group employeesâ learning, allyship, and growth in organizations.
Academy of Management ReviewTraining & DevelopmentWork Design
Taming Artificial Intelligence: A Theory of Control-Accountability Alignment among AI Developers and Users
Gudela Grote, Sharon K. Parker, Kevin Crowston
Abstract
The growing agency of artificial intelligence (AI) systems, more specifically systems based on machine learning, has raised concerns about the security, safety, and ethical risks of AI use. We argue that core to mitigating AI risks is proper alignment of control and accountability for the stakeholders involved in AI development and use. Control enables, and accountability motivates, stakeholders to achieve desired and avoid undesired outcomes using AI. However, AI systemsâ capabilities forâŚThe growing agency of artificial intelligence (AI) systems, more specifically systems based on machine learning, has raised concerns about the security, safety, and ethical risks of AI use. We argue that core to mitigating AI risks is proper alignment of control and accountability for the stakeholders involved in AI development and use. Control enables, and accountability motivates, stakeholders to achieve desired and avoid undesired outcomes using AI. However, AI systemsâ capabilities for autonomous adaptivity reduce control even for the experts who create them. Moreover, increasing interdependencies between AI development and use render it difficult to unambiguously locate control and accountability. In this paper, we address these challenges for mitigating AI risks by postulating decentralized forms of stakeholder governance and integrative negotiations among stakeholders during the AI life cycle as conducive to aligning control and accountability for AI development and use. Further, we specify that extensive information sharing aided by perspective taking and a shared norm of accountability facilitate integrative negotiation strategies. We conclude by discussing the implications of our theory for management scholarship on the impact of AI, and identify promising avenues for future research at micro, meso, and macro levels of analysis.
Delineation of Reasoning, Intentional Disclosure, and the Potential for Harm: An Extension of Vanneste and Puranamâs âArtificial Intelligence, Trust, and Perceptions of Agencyâ
Highly Oppositional Occupations and Cognitive Behavioral Script-Based Mechanisms of WorkâHome Conflict
Solomiya Draga, Katherine A. DeCelles
Abstract
We introduce novel theory to explain how and why some forms of work are particularly likely to foster workâhome conflict. While all occupations have entrenched and prescriptively normative cognitive behavioral scripts that guide effective work task execution, we argue that some occupationsâ scripts are predominantly oppositional in nature, and largely inappropriate outside of the work domain. We articulate four forms of oppositional thoughts and behaviors (physical, interpersonally hostile,âŚWe introduce novel theory to explain how and why some forms of work are particularly likely to foster workâhome conflict. While all occupations have entrenched and prescriptively normative cognitive behavioral scripts that guide effective work task execution, we argue that some occupationsâ scripts are predominantly oppositional in nature, and largely inappropriate outside of the work domain. We articulate four forms of oppositional thoughts and behaviors (physical, interpersonally hostile, authoritarian, and intellectual) that are learned and reinforced at work. We explain how performing these scripts can desensitize workers to enacting oppositional behaviors, and how these scripts can be inadvertently cued and enacted at home. We introduce moderators to consider for whom this process might be more or less likely. Our theory enhances understanding of how work can conflict with home through cognitive behavioral processes, beyond known temporal and affective mechanisms. We also contribute to boundary theory perspectives on workâhome conflict to theorize a novel detractor to effective workâhome role segmentation, beyond boundary flexibility and permeability: role cue similarity across work and home. We conclude with a discussion of how our theory can generate research across workâhome conflict, boundary theory, and occupations literatures, as well as practical implications.
Academy of Management ReviewTraining & DevelopmentMotivation
How Music Theory Can Inform Competitive Dynamics: Anticipatory Awareness and Successful Preemption
Eric Y. Lee, John R. Busenbark, Michael C. Withers, Edward J. Zajac
Abstract
Competitive dynamics (CD) research has long relied on the awareness-motivation-capability (AMC) framework to analyze competitive actions and responses. Rooted in the stimulus-response model from social cognition research, the AMC framework unsurprisingly emphasizes a focal firmâs ex post (i.e., emergent) awareness of a rivalâs attack as the requisite stimulus for a focal firmâs competitive response. We extend both the AMC model and the CD literature by considering the competitive relevance ofâŚCompetitive dynamics (CD) research has long relied on the awareness-motivation-capability (AMC) framework to analyze competitive actions and responses. Rooted in the stimulus-response model from social cognition research, the AMC framework unsurprisingly emphasizes a focal firmâs ex post (i.e., emergent) awareness of a rivalâs attack as the requisite stimulus for a focal firmâs competitive response. We extend both the AMC model and the CD literature by considering the competitive relevance of an alternative stimulus: a focal firmâs anticipatory awareness of rivalsâ intentions. To elaborate the process by which anticipatory awareness can manifest itself, we advance a novel conceptual framework rooted in music theory (tonal harmony and rhythm perspectives) to explain how a listener, by recognizing consonance and dissonance in musical notes and patterns in timing, can anticipate what will come next. We apply our framework to discuss ways in which a focal firm can develop anticipatory awareness vis-Ă -vis competitor intentions, and we link this alternative stimulus to an under-researched but managerially important response that is also anticipatory: successful preemption. We conclude with a discussion of the multiple uses and extensions of our theoretical framework for research and practice on anticipated interactions between firms and their rivalrous (and non-rivalrous) counterparts.
Academy of Management ReviewOrganizational Culture
Unpacking the Role of Organizational Actorhood in Interorganizational Trust: A Reply to âLooking Behind the Continuum: An Institutional Economics Perspective on Schilke and Lumineauâs âHow Organizational Is Interorganizational Trust?ââ
Organizational Research MethodsPerformance Management
Taking It Easy: Off-the-Shelf Versus Fine-Tuned Supervised Modeling of Performance Appraisal Text
Andrew B. Speer, James Perrotta, Tobias L. Kordsmeyer
Abstract
When assessing text, supervised natural language processing (NLP) models have traditionally been used to measure targeted constructs in the organizational sciences. However, these models require significant resources to develop. Emerging âoff-the-shelfâ ...When assessing text, supervised natural language processing (NLP) models have traditionally been used to measure targeted constructs in the organizational sciences. However, these models require significant resources to develop. Emerging âoff-the-shelfâ large language models (LLM) offer a way to evaluate organizational constructs without building customized models. However, it is unclear whether off-the-shelf LLMs accurately score organizational constructs and what evidence is necessary to infer validity. In this study, we compared the validity of supervised NLP models to off-the-shelf LLM models (ChatGPT-3.5 and ChatGPT-4). Across six organizational datasets and thousands of comments, we found that supervised NLP produced scores were more reliable than human coders. However, and even though not specifically developed for this purpose, we found that off-the-shelf LLMs produce similar psychometric properties as supervised models, though with slightly less favorable psychometric properties. We connect these findings to broader validation considerations and present a decision chart to guide researchers and practitioners on how they can use off-the-shelf LLM models to score targeted constructs, including guidance on how psychometric evidence can be âtransportedâ to new contexts.
The Moralization of Intrinsic Motivation: Opportunities and Perils
Mijeong Kwon, Laura Sonday
Abstract
Scholars have traditionally treated motivation as a value-neutral state divorced from normative considerations. Yet, research across the social sciences suggests a growing moral imperative to love work, which carries with it the social expectation of intrinsic motivation. This normative pressure stems from the moralization of intrinsic motivation, wherein enjoyment of work is converted into a virtue. While research and practice emphasize positive work outcomes associated with intrinsicâŚScholars have traditionally treated motivation as a value-neutral state divorced from normative considerations. Yet, research across the social sciences suggests a growing moral imperative to love work, which carries with it the social expectation of intrinsic motivation. This normative pressure stems from the moralization of intrinsic motivation, wherein enjoyment of work is converted into a virtue. While research and practice emphasize positive work outcomes associated with intrinsic motivation, we argue that the moralization of intrinsic motivation is not wholly beneficial. Normative pressure to do what you love can encourage people to pursue and cultivate highly satisfying work for themselves and others. At the same time, however, it can lead to the neglect of security-related concerns (e.g., stable employment) and uninteresting tasks. Moreover, it can elicit discriminatory behavior against those who are presumed to lack intrinsic motivation or who exhibit other viable forms of motivation, impacting overall cohesion and conflict within organizations. Our framework explains how intrinsic motivation becomes morally laden, and the opportunities and perils it presents at intrapersonal, interpersonal, and organizational levels.
A Promise Not (Yet) Fulfilled: Entrepreneurship, Opportunity Underexploitation, and the Reproduction of Inequality via Consumer Markets
Alexander C. Lewis, Garry D. Bruton, Dean A. Shepherd
Abstract
In this paper, we offer a theory of opportunity underexploitation that explains how consumer disadvantage is coupled to the entrepreneurial process such that market inefficiencies disproportionately affect consumers from marginalized groups. We define opportunity underexploitation as a shortfall in entrepreneurial activity given an opportunityâs potential value and the availability of resources in a system. We theorize that the social closure encountered by entrepreneurs from marginalizedâŚIn this paper, we offer a theory of opportunity underexploitation that explains how consumer disadvantage is coupled to the entrepreneurial process such that market inefficiencies disproportionately affect consumers from marginalized groups. We define opportunity underexploitation as a shortfall in entrepreneurial activity given an opportunityâs potential value and the availability of resources in a system. We theorize that the social closure encountered by entrepreneurs from marginalized groups, the segregation of marginalized groups from non-marginalized groups, and the stereotyping of marginalized consumer groups all produce shortfalls in both the number of entrepreneurs seeking to exploit an opportunity and the resources they mobilize to do so. In turn, these shortfalls increase the prices marginalized consumer groups pay and reduce the availability of products marginalized consumer groups desire relative to what would be expected had markets been more efficient, in addition to reinforcing feedback loops. With this theory, we interrogate the Weberian ideal of neutral markets and identify breakdowns in the process of opportunity exploitation that, when remedied, will reduce inequality through increases in the efficiency of consumer markets.
Organizational Research MethodsSelection & AssessmentTraining & DevelopmentResearch Methods
The Effects of the Training Sample Size, Ground Truth Reliability, and NLP Method on Language-Based Automatic Interview Scoresâ Psychometric Properties
Louis Hickman, Josh Liff, Caleb Rottman, Charles Calderwood
Abstract
While machine learning (ML) can validly score psychological constructs from behavior, several conditions often change across studies, making it difficult to understand why the psychometric properties of ML models differ across studies. We address this gap ...While machine learning (ML) can validly score psychological constructs from behavior, several conditions often change across studies, making it difficult to understand why the psychometric properties of ML models differ across studies. We address this gap in the context of automatically scored interviews. Across multiple datasets, for interview- or question-level scoring of self-reported, tested, and interviewer-rated constructs, we manipulate the training sample size and natural language processing (NLP) method while observing differences in ground truth reliability. We examine how these factors influence the ML model scoresâ testâretest reliability and convergence, and we develop multilevel models for estimating the convergent-related validity of ML model scores in similar interviews. When the ground truth is interviewer ratings, hundreds of observations are adequate for research purposes, while larger samples are recommended for practitioners to support generalizability across populations and time. However, self-reports and tested constructs require larger training samples. Particularly when the ground truth is interviewer ratings, NLP embedding methods improve upon count-based methods. Given mixed findings regarding ground truth reliability, we discuss future research possibilities on factors that affect supervised ML modelsâ psychometric properties.
Academy of Management ReviewOrganizational Culture
Looking behind the Continuum: An Institutional Economics Perspective on Schilke and Lumineauâs âHow Organizational Is Interorganizational Trust?â
Felix Carl Schultz, Vladislav Valentinov, Ingo Pies
Journal of Organizational BehaviorTraining & DevelopmentLeadershipWell-being & HealthOrganizational Culture
Relaxing into differences and energizing into differences: How groupâbased play enables demographically diverse adults to coâcreate a climate of psychological safety
Adaora Ubaka, M. Teresa Cardador, Sandy J. Wayne
Abstract
Summary Psychological safety is a beneficial socialâpsychological state that promotes positive outcomes in the workplace, such as greater information sharing and enhanced organizational learning. Yet, how psychological safety dynamically develops as a process in groups generally and in demographically diverse groups particularly is understudied. Moreover, there is an insufficient understanding of how peer group membersâgroup members who are not the leaderâinfluence the progression andâŚSummary Psychological safety is a beneficial socialâpsychological state that promotes positive outcomes in the workplace, such as greater information sharing and enhanced organizational learning. Yet, how psychological safety dynamically develops as a process in groups generally and in demographically diverse groups particularly is understudied. Moreover, there is an insufficient understanding of how peer group membersâgroup members who are not the leaderâinfluence the progression and maintenance of psychological safety. We address these theoretical gaps through an inductive, qualitative study of a groupâbased play context. Grounded in data collected from 97 participants, including 56 interviews and 70 h of participant observation, we build a theory that illuminates how psychological safety is coâcreated through peer group member interactions during groupâbased play. We find that the opportunities afforded by groupâbased play disrupt exclusionary dynamics among demographically diverse adults and permit them to shift their relational risk motivation from pursuing goals of individualized selfâprotection to pursuing goals of relationship promotion with one another. This breaking out of default, protective relational patterns during group play enables diverse group members to have a greater willingness to (1) engage in relational riskâtaking with each other and (2) support each other's relational riskâtakingâa process we refer to as the relational risk promotion cycle. As diverse group members relationally play off of one another during this cycle, they begin to coâcreate a climate of psychological safety, in which they experience discrete events of relaxing and energizing into their differences. Our research makes theoretical contributions to the literatures on psychological safety, diversity in groups and play in organizations. Additionally, our findings suggest a critical role for leaders in which they are not solely creating the conditions for group psychological safety but supporting group members in working together to coâcreate a climate of psychological safety for themselves.
The Art of Blending Stakeholders: âBootlegger and Baptistâ Coalitions in Corporate Constituency-Building
Maurice J. Murphy, Edward Walker, Nan Jia
Abstract
Constituency-building is an important corporate political strategy that expands the scope of conflict by mobilizing stakeholders to pressure policymakers. Although prior studies of constituency-building have highlighted how enlisting stakeholders in political battles creates unique opportunities and risks, what has been overlooked is the importance of firms assembling âstrange bedfellowsâ of economically and morally motivated constituents, sometimes called âbootlegger-and-Baptistâ coalitions.âŚConstituency-building is an important corporate political strategy that expands the scope of conflict by mobilizing stakeholders to pressure policymakers. Although prior studies of constituency-building have highlighted how enlisting stakeholders in political battles creates unique opportunities and risks, what has been overlooked is the importance of firms assembling âstrange bedfellowsâ of economically and morally motivated constituents, sometimes called âbootlegger-and-Baptistâ coalitions. Drawing on theories developed in research on regulatory economics, political processes, social movements, and corporate political strategy, we advance a theoretical framework to examine the trade-offs of firms creating blended coalitions consisting of parties who each have distinct economic and moral motives as opposed to uniform coalitions. We argue that blended coalitions often generate greater benefits by increasing policymakersâ support. However, we highlight higher costs at each of four key stages in blending coalitionsâsearching for partners, coordinating with partners, mobilizing partners, and monitoring partnersâand discuss mitigation strategies. We further develop theory on how to implement blended coalitions, including formulating messages for constituents and choosing policymakers to target. We develop propositions to advance theory development on constituency-building, linked to stakeholder mobilization and social movement approaches. We offer wide-ranging real-world examples to provide guidance for empirical research.
When the Principal Is the Firmâs Problem: Principal Costs and Their Corporate Governance Implications
Edward J. Zajac, Maria Goranova
Abstract
While agency theory has long dominated corporate governance research, we suggest that the common transplanting of the dyadic principalâagent problem into the corporate context has blurred key differences between principals and the firm as an entity. We redress this imbalance by advancing a conceptual framework of principal costs vis-Ă -vis the firm. We first show how principal costs can exist even in the single-principal corporate context, based on owner consumption and competenceâŚWhile agency theory has long dominated corporate governance research, we suggest that the common transplanting of the dyadic principalâagent problem into the corporate context has blurred key differences between principals and the firm as an entity. We redress this imbalance by advancing a conceptual framework of principal costs vis-Ă -vis the firm. We first show how principal costs can exist even in the single-principal corporate context, based on owner consumption and competence characteristics, which allows us to also distinguish principal costs from both agency costs and principalâprincipal expropriation costs. We then extend our principal costs theory to the multi-principal context, in which we highlight how principal costs, including private benefits of influence, can exist even in corporations with no controlling shareholder enjoying private benefits of control. In this latter context, we redirect the agency theoretic lens of incentive and informational concerns toward active minority shareholders whose actions generate principal costs vis-Ă -vis the firm, as well as passive shareholders who fail to constrain such principal costs. We conclude with a discussion of the broader implications of our theory for current and future corporate governance research, practice, and public policy.
Acting authentically: Using play to cultivate authentic interrelating in role performance
Lyndon E. Garrett
Abstract
Summary Research is increasingly demonstrating that authenticity and human connection are fundamental and interrelated human needs. However, organizational roles often constrain authenticity and connection in workplace interactions, especially roles that are highly scripted. People want to feel authentic and connected at work, but they also need to adhere to role expectations. Organizational role scholars have long explored how roles cause feelings of inauthenticity, and more recently, theâŚSummary Research is increasingly demonstrating that authenticity and human connection are fundamental and interrelated human needs. However, organizational roles often constrain authenticity and connection in workplace interactions, especially roles that are highly scripted. People want to feel authentic and connected at work, but they also need to adhere to role expectations. Organizational role scholars have long explored how roles cause feelings of inauthenticity, and more recently, the conditions that promote authenticity. We have limited understanding of how people approach being authentic in their roles without compromising or deviating from rigid role demands. To explore this, I conducted an inductive, qualitative study of six community theater productions, a context where roles are rigidly scripted, yet where actors strive to âlive truthfullyâ within their fictional roles. I find that actors and directors work together to cultivate authentic interrelating in their roles, characterized by the combination of personal engagement and interpersonal attunement. This process involves engaging in different forms of play to move from mechanically learning their roles, to crafting personalized intentions, to ultimately transcending their roles, gradually increasing in vulnerability and responsiveness until they are able to experience authentic interrelating in their roles.
Legacies of Shareholder Activism: The Dynamics and Consequences of Emotion in the Boardroom
Jeremy J. Marcel, Amanda P. Cowen
Abstract
Despite indications that shareholder activism can elicit strong emotions, there is little theory that considers the effect of those emotions on board dynamics or the outcomes of activist episodes. This paper uses a âphenomenon-drivenâ approach to develop theory regarding how activism arouses director emotion, and what implications emotion has for boards during and after activist episodes. We leverage work on self-determination theory to explore conditions under which activism will arouseâŚDespite indications that shareholder activism can elicit strong emotions, there is little theory that considers the effect of those emotions on board dynamics or the outcomes of activist episodes. This paper uses a âphenomenon-drivenâ approach to develop theory regarding how activism arouses director emotion, and what implications emotion has for boards during and after activist episodes. We leverage work on self-determination theory to explore conditions under which activism will arouse negative director emotion. Our theorizing highlights that differences in individual characteristics contribute to diversity in directorsâ emotional reactions. Next, we consider how directorsâ emotions subsequently evolve as board members interact. We develop a novel typology of affective states that characterize the emotional environment in the boardroom and help predict the emotional costs (i.e., psychological strain) incurred by directors as a result. Finally, we show how emotional costs have long-term implications for board functioning, thereby highlighting legacies of activism that have yet to be explored in prior work. In theorizing about how emotion influences activist episodes, we also develop a valuable lens with broad applicability for scholarship in the behavioral governance domain.
Organizational Psychology ReviewTheory & Philosophy of Science
Where's the theory contribution? An answer in four parts
Martin Kilduff, Daniel OâSullivan
Abstract
The requirement for a theory contribution in empirical papers causes consternation among some and confusion among many. We address this issue by articulating alternative approaches to theory that include formal modeling, paradigm elaboration, problem ...The requirement for a theory contribution in empirical papers causes consternation among some and confusion among many. We address this issue by articulating alternative approaches to theory that include formal modeling, paradigm elaboration, problem solving, and theory emergence from observations. Knowledge about these different approaches will, we believe, help ameliorate disagreement and incomprehension across the research tribes that dominate social science and business school research. Each approach requires different assumptions about truth and the representation of reality. We outline each approach, provide examples, and a short critique. We suggest that what may seem mundane to the critical realist may be eye-opening to the pragmatist who directs attention to practitioners. For the scholar immersed within the walls of a paradigm, a set of stylized facts may challenge and inspire. The secret to innovative theory contributions is to synthesize ideas from the different tribes to use within your own focused research program.
Organizational Psychology ReviewTheory & Philosophy of Science
Creating theory that is generative for scholarship and practice
Jean M. Bartunek, Chelsea Y. Lei
Abstract
Theorizing in management and organizational psychology that has a generative capacity challenges guiding assumptions, addresses fundamental questions, fosters reconsideration of existing knowledge, and stimulates new approaches to scholarship and/or ...Theorizing in management and organizational psychology that has a generative capacity challenges guiding assumptions, addresses fundamental questions, fosters reconsideration of existing knowledge, and stimulates new approaches to scholarship and/or practice (Gergen, 1994). Its generativity is shown in its use by others. Theorizing that has a generative capacity is crucial for true advances in understanding. While truly generative theorizing is very difficult to accomplish, it is a worthwhile aspiration. In this paper, we discuss foundational characteristics of generative theorizing and processes that interfere with and facilitate its development. Facilitating processes include cultivating both doubt and imagination, involvement in diverse communities, and working with multiple, perhaps contradictory, theoretical directions and assumptions. We provide examples of theorizing that has been generative for both scholarship and practice. Finally, we suggest implications for doctoral education.